TKT Module 1: Describing language and language skills
Functions

function

Understanding functions lies at the heart of a communicative approach to teaching.

What are functions?

Function is the name we give to a communicative act.
For example, if someone says:
Would you like another cup?

We can describe the grammar and lexis:
A question form of a modal auxiliary verb in the second person (Would you like) + a determiner representing addition (another) + a common, countable noun meaning a container for hot drinks (cup).
This is an example of formal analysis.
We can describe and transcribe how the sentence sounds, too:
/wʊd ju ˈlaɪk ə.ˈnʌð.ə kʌp/ and we can draw a line to show the change of tone (rising at the end, probably) to describe the intonation. We can even suggest that the main stress will fall on the word cup and the second syllable of another is also stressed.
This is another example of formal analysis.

But that still doesn't tell us what the speaker is doing in the language. In this example, the speaker is making a polite offer. That is the communicative act or function of the sentence.
If we change the sentence very slightly to:
Would John like another cup?
we change the communicative act from an offer to a request for information but the formal analysis of the sentence would be almost the same.

Stop and check

Here's another example. What are the functions of these two sentences?

Do you need any help?
Do you need some help?

Click here when you have an answer.

In the first sentence, the speaker uses any and that signals that it is a request for information (a real question). The function is asking for information.
In the second sentence, the speaker uses some and this signals that it is not really a question. The function is an offer to help.

Key concepts in this guide

By the end of this guide, you should be able to understand and use these key concepts:

analysing functions: function, exponent, realisation
form and function
adjacency pairs
intention
context and setting
relationships
media

Look out for these words like this in the text.
There will be tests at the end of the guide for you to check that you understand the ideas.

Function and exponent

Function: This describes what the speaker / writer wants to communicate. For example, if someone says:
    What time is it?
he or she is probably asking for a piece of factual information. We shall see that this is not the end of the story but it is possible to describe the function as Asking for information.
There are hundreds of possible functions that we can perform in all languages and it's quite easy to find lists which include items such as
    giving / getting permission
    asking for / giving factual information
    apologising / accepting apologies
    expressing hopes and wishes
and so on.
Two key publications are from the Council of Europe and are available on the web:
Waystage 1990 by Van Ek and Trim
Threshold 1990 by Van Ek and Trim
Waystage contains a long list of functions and notions for lower levels and Threshold does the same for more advanced learners.
Exponent: This is the word we use to describe the actual language we use to communicate a function. For example, if someone says:
    It's very cold in here
the exponent can be described as a positive (affirmative) statement using the dummy it, an adverb intensifier, an adjective and a prepositional phrase.
The function of the sentence can be
    to tell someone something about the temperature
    to ask someone to close the window or put on the heating
    to explain why you are putting on a coat.
It may even be
    advice to put on your coat.
Realise: This is the verb we use to connect function and exponent. For example, we can say:
The function of apologising may be realised by using a one-word statement like
Sorry!
or be quite elaborately realised as in, e.g.:
I really am awfully sorry about that. However can you forgive me?

One exponent, many functions

One form or exponent can, as we saw above, realise many functions
Here are some examples.

This exponent ...	... can mean ...	... and realise the function of ...
He is having a shower	He is in the bathroom So I won't disturb him Please leave a message with me	giving factual information about another person's whereabouts now or later explaining inaction requesting action
He should be there	I am obliging him to be there I deduce that he is there I advise that he be there	expressing obligation expressing logical deduction expressing advice
Is this your coat?	I want to know if it is your coat I want to move it because I'd like to sit here I want to you to move it because I'd like to sit here	asking for factual information asking for permission requesting action
It's broken	That's a pity. I can't use it now You have been careless	expressing disappointment expressing a complaint

You can see from these examples that one form can have more than one meaning. The meaning may be:

grammatical (a tense such as the present progressive used to speak about a current event or an arranged future)
structural (the functions of the modal should in expressing advice or deducing something)
pragmatic (the intended meaning behind saying Is this your coat?)

Understanding

If this is true, how on earth do people ever understand each other? Well, how do they? Think for a minute and then see the answer.

Contextual information: If we have just spoken about someone's journey and what time she will probably get to her destination, I know that when you use the word should, in, for example:
She should be there by now
you are not expressing advice or obligation but making a deduction about where she is now.
Shared knowledge: If you and I are on a train and we both know that the coat on the seat belongs to you, you can understand that I want to sit down, not ask a question about the ownership of the coat.

Adjacency pairs

Functions often come in pairs, because one function often requires its counterpart(s). For example, asking for someone's name is a useful function to control but less so if you don't know how to respond by introducing yourself. Here are some more:

apologising	accepting or rejecting apologies
asking for permission	granting or denying permission
asking directions	giving directions
expressing anger	placating

and, of course, it makes sense to teach and practise them together. There's not much point in being able to ask for permission three different ways if you are unlikely to understand the response.

One function, many forms

The other side of the coin is that we can use a number of exponents to realise the same function. If I want to advise you, I can say:
    You should ...
    You ought to ...
    Do you think it wouldn't be a good idea to ...
etc.
Here's another set of examples.

The function ...	... meaning ...	... could be achieved by ...
asking for permission	Let me go now	Can I go? Would it be OK if I left? I'm going if it's OK with you.
interrupting	I want to say something	Could I just say that ... Stop right there! Can I stop you a moment?
requesting action	I want you to close the window	Please shut the window It's cold in here Do you think we could have the window shut?
forgiving	I forgive you	That's OK It's not a problem Don't worry It doesn't matter

Choosing the form

If this is true, how on earth do we choose the right form to realise the function? Well, how do we? Think for a minute and then see the answer.

Intention: Do I want to be polite, rude, deferential, explicit, vagueetc.?
I can choose appropriately from:
    Open the damn window!
    Please open the window
    I wonder if you would mind if we had the window open
    Do you think we could let some air in?
etc. and which one I select will depend on my intention in this interaction.
Context and setting: How much shared information is there?
If we are standing opposite the bank, I can simply point and say
    There it is.
If I know you know something of the area, I can say,
    It's near the pub on the corner of the park.
If you are a complete stranger, I'll have to be much more explicit and use something like
    Go straight along the High Street until you see Waterstone's on your left. Take the first right after that and then you'll see the bank at the end of the street.
Relationships and roles: If one party is more powerful than the other (in this setting) then different language is employed.
Asking someone to sit down could take the form of
    Please sit there
    Sit, boy!
    I wonder if I could ask you to sit here
or whatever and the form which is appropriate will often depend on the power relationships between the people in the conversation.
The medium: Am I speaking or writing? If I'm writing, is it an email or a letter? If I am speaking, is this a formal lecture or a chat? Things like this will affect the kind of language I choose. Will I start with
    Dear sir
or
    Dear John?
Do I need to introduce myself? If so, do I say
    I am a long-standing customer with customer number 6757757
or
    Good morning. My name's Ingrid and I work as a Director Of Studies?
etc.

Teaching implications

Think what these might be. Try to find an implication for each of the four factors and then compare your list.

Intention:
We need to be clear about what certain forms say about the purposes of the user. We can only introduce and practise language successfully if the learners are aware of what they want to do with the language and how they want to appear.
Context and setting:
You can't learn, use or understand language in a vacuum. Formal grammar exercises and drilling have their place, of course, but when introducing or practising language forms we need to set a clear context and the learners also need to know where, why, to whom and when they are using the target language.
Relationships and roles:
In the classroom, relationships between the teacher and the learners and between learners are often informal and equal. Outside, in the real world, that's often not the case so we need to set up scenarios in which learners can practise choosing the appropriate language.
The medium:
If we are practising either speaking or writing, we need to have the audience and the speaker / writer's role in mind at all times and select language which is appropriate to the medium.

There are lots of guides on this site which you can follow to learn more about functions in English. A good place to start is the initial plus section. That has a whole section on teaching functions.

Self-test questions

Before you go on, make sure you can answer these questions. If you can't, go back to the sections which give you trouble.

Give two ways that the function of apologising can be realised.
Give an example of an adjacency pair.
What are the main differences between:
Open the window!
and
I wonder if we might have the window open.
How can whom we are talking to change the way we say things?

If you are happy with your progress, go on.

Tests and practice for TKT

Test 1	A 10-item quiz
Test 2	A matching task
Test 3	A matching task

Return to the Module 1 index:
or go on to the next guide which is to receptive skills.

TKT Module 1: Describing language and language skills Functions