Clausal subordination
Before tackling this guide, you would be wise to consult
the guide to
subordination and coordination where the differences and
similarities between the phenomena of coordination and subordination are analysed.
This guide deals with a number of issues covered in more detail
elsewhere such as conditionality and concession. You can track
other guides to the area via
the section
on syntax: clauses and phrases.
You will know if you have followed
the guide to
subordination and coordination that compound-complex sentences
with mixtures of various types of coordination and subordination are not uncommon in English.
In what follows, for the sake of clarity, we will deal with single
instances of subordination at a time and will not consider
coordination at all.
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The subordinators |
We can classify subordinators in two ways:
- By their structural characteristics – how they are formed and the nature of the surrounding syntax
- By what they do – their function in terms of making meaning
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structural characteristics |
We can divide the structural characteristics into three classes:
- Simple subordinators
- This is by far the largest class and contains the
subordinators that we would consider the essential subordinators
in English. They are all single words and many will be
familiar to most learners above A1 level.
Here's a list:after
although
as
because
before
if
however
lestonce
since
till
unless
until
when(ever)
where(ever)
whencewhereas
whereby
whereupon
while
whilst
whitherSome examples:
After he had driven for 4 hours he stopped for coffee
He couldn't leave until the work was done
Before it rains, we should take the dog out
However you want to do the work is fine with me
I told him it was a stupid idea whereupon he became angry
Whereas I have often worked late, Shirley never does
Once we've finished we can go for a drink
- Compound subordinators
- These are rarer. Many insist on being followed by
that and some can optionally be followed by that.
Others are followed by as and some are simply rather
irregular.
Here's a list:Obligatory that Optional that Obligatory as Others Some examples: in that
so that
in order that
such that
except thatnow that
providing that
provided that
supposing that
considering that
given that
assuming that
seeing thatas long as
as soon as
so long as
as much as
insofar as
as far assooner than
rather than
as if
as though
in caseHe did all the work except that he forgot the painting
Now that he's at university, we can rent out his room
Considering that he's nearly 80 he's very active
Insofar as she could she answered all the questions
Assuming that it's open I can get it at the corner shop
I'd sooner stay in tonight than go to the party
Seeing that it's under guarantee, I don't worry about it
We can finish today given that we are all working on it - Correlative subordinators
- These consist of two parts but are separated by the
independent clause. Here's the (short) list of these with
their characteristic function.
Conditional Concessive Proportional Alternative Some examples: if ... then although ... yet as ... so
more/less ... than
the ... thewhether ... or If you cook then I'll wash up
Although his handwriting is poor yet it can be understood
The more people who come the better it will be
The use of then in conditional expressions is not obligatory.
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shared structural characteristics |
All subordinators share certain attributes which distinguish them from coordinators and make them teachable together (but not all of them at once, please).
- Clause mobility
- It is possible to have, for example,
I came because I was interested
and
Because I was interested, I came
and
Unless you work a bit more, you'll fail the examination
and
You'll fail the examination unless you work a bit more
Although the emphasis is different, both orderings are grammatically acceptable.
You cannot do this with coordinating conjunctions of course or you get nonsense like:
*But you weren't at home I telephoned
Subordinators travel with their clause; coordinators are independent of either clause and come between them. - Allowing the addition of other conjunctions
- Subordinators can themselves be preceded by coordinators in,
for example:
He didn't come because it was raining and because he was too tired
You can leave early provided that you have finished but only if the boss says it's OK
Again, coordinators do not allow that. - Non-elision of the subject
- Usually, coordinators allow the elision of the subject but
subordinators do not so we can have
John came home and cooked
a coordinated set of two clauses with ellipsis of the second subject
but not
*I came in order that could see you
or
*I won't drink if am driving - Inability to join two equal subordinate clauses
- In this part, coordinator in green, subordinators in red.
- Coordinators can join two subordinate clauses together as
in, e.g.:
Because I wanted to see you I came to the party and stayed for hours
in which the coordinator and joins two equal-value clauses, but we cannot have:
*She came when you asked in order that you saw her
because only coordinators can link two subordinate clauses together.
Subordinators can, of course, link a further subordinate clause making a complex tree of subordinations so we can have, e.g.:
She came to the party because she wanted to talk to him and because she enjoys parties if they are not too large and noisy
Here, we have a main clause:
She came to the party
a subordinate clause:
because she wanted to talk to him
linked to another equal-value subordinate clause:
and because she enjoys parties
with its own subordinate conditional clause:
if they are not too large and noisy.
If that seems complicated to access, try a diagram:
Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of clauses which can be linked in this way.
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function and meaning |
Functionally, there are at least the following classifications.
There are other ways to do this, of course, because people
conceptualise things slightly differently. For teaching
purposes, the following will do. You will notice that some
subordinators can perform more than one function so appear in more
than one category. The examples have been deliberately chosen
to apply to the less-frequently encountered items.
The categories are slightly different from those in
the guide to
conjunctions, by the way.
Function | Subordinators | Examples and notes |
conditional | if if ... then providing that provided that supposing (that) on condition that unless as / so long as |
If we
want to get this done then we'll have to start soon. Supposing that John doesn't pay, what will happen then? Unless I am very much mistaken, that's his brother in law. You can do that just as long as nobody gets hurt. See the guide to conditional and concessive subordination for more. The unusual nature of unless is covered there, too. |
concessive | although given (that) in that considering (that) assuming (that) presuming (that) insofar as as far as although ... yet |
Given that he has no
money, I can see no way he will pay you. Insofar as the work needs doing, I suppose I shall have to pay for it. I will ask him presuming we meet, of course. Although she tried her best, yet she failed to pass. As far as his work is concerned, I have no complaints. See the guide to conditional and concessive subordination for more. |
causal | because as since so that in order that such that seeing that in case whereby |
I came early so that I
could help out a bit. He wrote his essay such that the links between its parts were clear. Seeing that he is unharmed, there's no reason to panic. In case you need me, I'll be by the phone. He opened the hatch whereby he could get onto the roof. The conjunction in case operates differently in AmE and BrE: She will take her laptop in case it's needed is differently understood. In British English, this means She will take her laptop and use it if she needs it In American English, this might mean: She will take her laptop only if there's a need for it Whereby is unusual. The conjunctions as, since and because all function as causal subordinators with the same syntax. The conjunction for, in this sense, is a coordinator. Note that in one of its senses, called resultative, the conjunction so that is actually a coordinator akin to so and not a subordinator. For example: The garden was covered in snow so that he could see the footprints clearly In this sentence, so that can be replaced with a true coordinator such as and or so and it cannot shift position so we don't allow: *So that he could see the footprints clearly the garden was covered in snow When it is used in a purposive way to mean something like in order that, it is a subordinator and we can shift the clauses around as in, e.g.: He fixed it firmly in place so that it wouldn't move So that it wouldn't move he fixed it firmly in place |
temporal | after before now that once since till until when(ever) whereupon while whilst as soon as |
Now that we have finished
the work, we can relax. Once we have finished the work we can relax. I voiced my objection at the meeting whereupon I was fired. Whenever I speak to him, he seems distracted and busy. I cooked whilst my sister did the gardening. Note that since can also act as a preposition as in, e.g., since the war, since 1959 etc. The word whereupon is rare. |
exclusive | lest except (that) sooner than rather than whether ... or |
I would sooner eat on the
terrace than be in this smoky restaurant. He reinforced the floor lest the snooker table be too heavy. Whether he comes or doesn't come, it makes no difference to us. Because of their nature, subordinate clauses in these cases are often severely elided as in, e.g., It makes no difference whether he comes or no(t). The subordinator lest is somewhat old fashioned and is generally followed by a clause in the subjunctive (as in the example). |
spatial | where(ever) whence whither |
Wherever she looked, she
saw enemies. The pub is over the hill, whither we are going today. He knew the city, whence he came, really well. Whence and whither are unusual in modern English and probably not worth troubling any but the most advanced learners with. |
comparative / contrastive | as if as though while whilst whereas |
He used the stone as
though / if it were a hammer. She prefers to eat out while / whilst I prefer eating at home I had eaten whereas the others went hungry Note that both as if and as though are often followed by a subjunctive form. There is a guide this and other uses of the subjunctive on the site. The subordinators while and whilst are also temporal conjunctions. |
proportional | as ... so more/less ... than the ... the |
The more they shouted the calmer
he became. As the evening wore on so they became noisier and more excited. She was more embarrassed than she ever remembered being. In the last example, it is easily argued that the first element of the subordinator is simply a modifier. That is so. |
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Alternative ways to subordinate |
There are 3 major ways in which English can signal a subordination of one clause to another without using a conjunction (although conjunctions are by far the most frequent).
- Wh-words and that
- Most frequently, wh- words occur in subordinate
pronoun and adverb relative clauses. They function to split the main clause,
inserting the relative clause into the sentence like this:
The shop, where you bought the coat, has closed.
The subordination occurs with both defining and non-defining relative clauses:
The people who came to the party were genuinely friendly.
The relative pronoun that is used in a similar way:
The dog that bit him belongs to the neighbours.
When omitting the relative pronoun is allowed (i.e., when it stands as the object in a defining clause [see the guide to relative pronoun clauses for more]), subordination still occurs
The man we asked was very helpful.
There is a guide to relative pronoun clauses on this site (linked below). - Inversions
- This is a fairly rare occurrence in English in conditional
sentences but in formal writing may be encountered. The
usual items are had, were and the putative should:
Had I known you were coming, I would have got in some beer.
Were you to try a bit harder, I feel sure you'd understand.
Should you find yourself in any trouble, call me at once. - Non-finite forms
- This is a large category. If you have followed the
guide to clause structure, you'll know that independent clauses
cannot be non-finite but that a non-finite clause is almost
always a marker of subordination. If the terms confuse
you, there is a guide to finite and non-finite clauses on this
site (linked below). Here are two examples:
I came to help (non-finite infinitive with to)
Opening the door, he saw the fire had burnt out (non-finite -ing clause)
These sorts of subordination may be replaced by the use of a subordinator.
I came so that I can help
When he opened the door, he saw the fire had burnt out
Related guides | |
subordination and coordination | for an overview of the area |
coordination | for the guide dedicated to this area |
syntax: clauses and phrases | for the index to allied areas |
conjunctions | for more on the word class in general |
so and such | for a short guide to these two troublesome words |
conditional and concessive clauses | for more on two specific types of subordination |
subjunctive | for more on the other uses of the subjunctive in English |
relative pronoun clauses | for more on a particular type of subordination using pronoun forms rather than conjunction |
finite and non-finite clauses | for a guide to these two basic clause and verb types |
lesson on subordination | a lesson on subordination for higher-level learners |
exercise on subordination | a short exercise on subordination to test learners (and you) |